[PDF]Water Supply From a Public Standpost

The International Reference Centre for Community Water Supply (IRC) is based on
an agreement between the World Health Organization and the Netherlands' Government.
The general objective of the IRC is to underpin information and technology support
programmes in developing countries in the field of community water supply and
sanitation and to promote international cooperation therein. Acting as a
catalyst, the IRC operates through a worldwide network of regional and national
institutions, as well as with international agencies, bilateral donors, non-
governmental organizations and individuals.

Requests for information on the IRC, or enquiries on specific problems may be
directed to the International Reference Centre for Community Water Supply,
Information Section, P.O. Box 140, 2260 AC Leidschendam, the Netherlands.




MICROFICHE
REFERENCE
LIBRARY

A project of Volunteers in Asia

Public Standpost Water Supplies, Technical Paper #13



Published by:
IRC

P.O. Box 5500
2280 HM Rijswijk
THE NETHERLANDS



Available from:



same as above



Reproduced by permission.



Reproduction of this microfiche document in any
form is subject to the same restrictions as those
of the original document.



WHO INTERNATIONAL REFERENCE CENTRE

FOR

COMMUNITY WATER SUPPLY



PUBLIC STANDPOST
WATER SUPPLIES



TECHNICAL PAPER NO. 13
NOVEMBER 1979



Nw. Havenstraat 6, 2272 AD Voorburg (The Hague)
The Netherlands

Postal Address:
P.O. Box 140, 2260 AC Leidschendam, The Netherlands



This report is issued on the responsibility of the WHO
International Reference Centre for Community Water Supply.
It does not necessarily represent the decisions or the
stated policy of the World Health Organization.



2



TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

PREFACE 5

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 7

SUMMARY - 9

I. INTRODUCTION 15

II. ECONOMICS AND FINANCE

General Considerations 21

Cost of Standpost Systems . 23

Selection of Design Standards 26

Financing . 28

III. SOCIAL ASPECTS

Social Appropriateness 35

Planning and Social Acceptability 36

Social Organization * 42

IV. ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT

Institutional Structure 45

Staff Requirements and Training. . 49

Operation Management 51

- Maintenance 52

Supervision 57

- Revenue Collection 58

V. COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION

Participation in the Planning . . 61

Implementation (• 3

Participation in Operation and Maintenance 64

Use of Water and Improvement of Health 66

Community Organization 68

V. TECHNICAL ASPECTS

Choice of Technology 71

Water Consumption 72

Hydraulics and Capacities 73

Standpost Structure and Layout 77

ANNEXES 81

LIST OF REFERENCES 95

INDEX 101



3



WATER COLLECTION



4



PREFACE



Recognizing the fundamental importance of water supply and sanita-
tion in the promotion and socio-economic development, member countries
of the United Nations Organizations have declared the period 1981 -
1990 as the International Drinking Water and Sanitation Decade. The
goal is to provide all people with an adequate supply of safe water
and sanitary disposal of human excreta by the end of the Decade. If
this goal is to be achieved, some two billion (2 000 000 000} people
should be provided with water by the end of the Decade at an estimated
cost of about 60 billion dollars, based on existing per capita costs.
With this estimate it can be anticipated that cost is likely to be one
of the major constraints in the achievement of the Decade targets.
It is therefore imperative that the visions of the best but costly
options of water supply are not allowed to distract communities from
the attainable. Undoubtedly, each community would have liked to be
provided with pipe-borne water supply with full house connection.
Yet for most communities in the developing countries this would be
unaf fordable. For many a community the affordable and realistic
solution which would be at the same time technically sound would
be the public standpost water supply system. As a guide for the
proper planning of such systems the present publication would be
invaluable.

It used to be assumed that the provision of a community with an
adequate and safe water supply would, by itself, be followed by
certain health and socio-economic benefits. But the evaluation of
some water supply projects has shown that such expected benefits
do not necessarily follow becuse due to socio-cultural and managerial
problems, the installed water supplies may not be used as antici-
pated. The present publication seeks to provide the reader with
the necessary guidance for overcoming such problems.



5



It provides insights not only into the economic and financial aspects
of the planning of public standpost systems, but also into its social,
organizational and managerial aspects. It also deals with community
participation in technology selection, operation and maintenance. This
is, in effect, a publication on the software of public standposts. The
hardware is treated more extensively in the companion volume entitled
"Design Manual" (IRC Technical Paper No. 14) .

The present publication will be of particular interest to decision
makers, planners, administrators, public health workers and engineers
responsible for the planning and implementation of public standpost
water supplies.



ALBERT WRIGHT



6



ACKNOWLEDGEMENT



This publication is the result of a collaborative effort. Grateful
acknowledgement is extended towards Dr. D.T. Lauria, Mr. A.K. Roy,
Mr. K..B. Ringskog and Dr. A.T. White, for their contributions on
respectively, the technological, organizational, economic and social
aspects of public standpost water supply systems.

This report also incorporates material reviewed in an international
expert meeting held in Achimota, Ghana, in August 1977. The
participants offered many useful comments and suggestions and their
help is greatly appreciated.

A special word of thanks is addressed to Albert Wright, Professor
at the University of Kumasi. Ghana, for his active support and
collaboration, and to Arnold Pacey, who did admirable work regarding
the editing of the various contributions. Last but not least, the
much appreciate assistance of Marylynn Bianco and Dick Mos in the
finalization of this Technical Paper is gratefully acknowl edged.

This publication and its companion "Design Manual" {IRC Technical
Paper No. 14; results from a study commissioned by the World Bank.
The IRC wishes to take this opportunity of thanking the Bank,
and in particular, Messrs. H. Shipman and J.M. Kalbermatten for
their continuous support to this study.

Enric L.P. Hessing
Programme Officer



7



PUBLIC STANDPOST WATER SUPPLY



SUMMARY



Public standposts are often installed as a first step in the develop-
ment of a full house-connected water supply. For many people in
developing countries, however, a public standpost could well be
the only feasible water supply for a long time to come; particul-
arly in rural areas, where scattered housing makes individual con-
nections extremely expensive, and in low-income urban fringe areas,
where little revenue can be expected in return for public services.

In the planning of public standpost water supplies, many technolog-
ical, economic, organizational and socio-cultural aspects have to
be taken into account, in conjunction with each other. The inter-
relationships between the organizational structure, the choice of
technology, the financing and revenue collection, the operation
and maintenance, community participation and local organization,
requires an integrated approach towards the planning of public
standpost water supplies.

The decision to install public standposts is largely determined by
economic and financial considerations. However, many other factors
influence the decision as well, and a systematic analysis of all
relevant factors is needed to determine what level of service is
economically and socially appropriate.

The circumstances in which public standposts are commonly used may
be summarized as follows:

where funds for investment in water supplies are severely

limited;

in rural areas where house connections would require lengthy
and expensive runs of pipe;

in urban slums where improvements in housing are needed before
individual house-connections are feasible.

9



Public standposts are economically appropriate mainly where
investment funds are sever ly limited. The capital investment
necessary to set up a public standpost water supply is consider-
ably less than that required for a full house-connected supply,
particularly when the size of the community served is smaller
than 5000.

However, the cost per unit volume of water from public standposts
is relatively high, due to the lower consumption rate per head.
The total cost of a public standpost water supply varies greatly,
depending on sources works, treatment and length of piping required.
The cost of the stanc ost itself is a relatively small amount, but
also varies greatly for different countries and situations. It
ranges from US$ 20-50 for a very simple standpost used in rural
villages, to US$ 200-500 for public standposts in urban settings.

To secure the necessary government or private investment coop-
eration, it is useful to reinforce health benefit and cost effect-
iveness arguments with a demonstration of the consumers' willing-
ness to pay for the water and to contribute towards the cost of
construction, operation and maintenance. Therefore, it is
essential to establish a clear charging policy and to develop an
appropriate method of revenue collection.

In many cases, a suitable arrangement could be to meet the costs
partly from house connection charges and partly from a general
water tax paid by all. Gradually extending the number of house
connections, and thus the level of service to the community, will
often have a positive influence on the financial viability of
the system.

A water supply system has to fit into the community's social
pattern, and therefore various socio-cultural factors, which often
have a profound influence on the use of water have to be taken
into account in the planning and design.



10



It is important that planners attempt to understand the users'
point of view, their water needs, practices and preferences, and
the community* s social and organizational structure. These factors
influence both the technical and organizational side of the design
of a public standpost system.

Organization and management are essential elements of a water
supply. The responsibility is often divided: planning and
construction fall under a government department, while a local
authority is responsible for operation and maintenance. The
alternative is to have both planning and management governed
by a unitary water authority, that also has a high degree of
autonomy regarding finance. This agency should be responsible
to the government and has to coordinate its activities with
local and municipal authorities. A legal framework is always
required to define the rights and responsibilities of the water
authorities, the local committees and other agencies involved in
the organization and management of the water supply system.

Operational management includes operation, maintenance/ super-
vision, revenue collection, and liaison with the users.
It is important that maintenance organization includes regular
inspection and preventive maintenance as well as repairs after
breakdowns. Supervision is necessary where water is scarce,
where there is a risk of vandalism and where water has to be
paid for on the spot. Revenue collection, whether periodical, or
per volume should be acceptable to the community. Open communi-
cation between the water agency and the community is of great
importance in the planning, implementation and operation stage.

In general, there is a lack of trained technical and managerial
personnel. The importance of the latter category is stressed.
Training schemes should be set up for the whole range of skilled
personnel required.



11



Organization and management should incorporate a strong element of
community participation. Coordination of activities at local level
and a continued dialogue with the population are essential.
Depending on the extent of community participation and the local
organizational pattern, strengthening of the formal community
organization may be required.

The standpost itself is the interface between technology and
human activities? it is the place where the hand of the user
touches the hardware of the system. Therefore, in designing a
public standpost, due attention has to be given to the habits
and preferences of the users regarding fetching and use of *ater

Reasonable access to a standpost could be defined as a walking
distance of less than 200 metres; in rural situations distances
up to 500 metres may sometimes be acceptable. The number of
persons served by any one standpost should preferably not exceed
250 and the number of users per tap should be in the range of
25 - 125.

The volume of water drawn daily from a public standpost is in the
range of 20-60 litres per capita. The actual consumption depends
not only on local habits concerning domestic water us, but also
on the availability of other sources.

In many situations, a design period of 15-20 years would be
suitable. The initial design should preferably make allowance
for future upgrading of the system through the installation of
more and more house connections.

Efficient drainage is essential. The simplest form is a soak-
away drain under the tap, or next to the platform. Another
possibility is a drainage channel to the platform leading to a
discharge pipe. A further consideration might be to use the
drainage water for cattle watering, irrigation or fish farming.



12



Wastage of water is often reported as one of the major problems of
public standposts. However, measuring of wastage is difficult and
when high figures are reported it may be assumed that these also
include the leakage in the pipe network.

Some spillage is normal when buckets and cans are filled. The
tap is often left open between fillings of two buckets. In some
cases wastage is caused by carelessness on the part of the user,
or by vandalism. The solution to the problem may lie in the imp-
rovement of public information and community organization, rather
than in the installation of a sophisticated anti-waste tap.

Experiments and calculations have shown that the cost of a dist-
ribution system iz affected much more by pipe lengths than by pipe
diameters or the r.u-ri^r of standposts. Therefore, the pipe net-
work should be as short a-.-: possible. Frequently, this wixl result
in branched networks. Provision for some extra capacity through
the choice of wider pipes and the installation of extra standposts
is usually a good investment.



13



I INTRODUCTION



A public standpost is a suitably supported water pipe, connected
with a water distribution system and terminating in a tap or
faucet, which is located at a public site, and from which water
may be drawn for domestic and other uses. In other publications
these installations are also referred to as: public standpipes,
public hydrants, public fountains, public taps, public spigots
or communal water points.

Many water supply agencies in urban areas regard public standposts
as only an intermediate step in the development of a fully house-
connected water supply. This policy arises partly from an aware-
ness that the impact of water on health is much improved if people
have at least one tap in their own homes; the water will then be
used more freely and its quality better safeguarded. Another
consideration is that payments for water are much easier to collect
from people with household connections than from standpost users,
consequently the former usually brings in more revenue.

However, for many people in many countries a public standpost
could well be the only feasible method of water supply for a very
long time to come. This is especially true in rural areas where
scattered housing makes individual connections particularly
expensive because of the long runs of pipe required. It is also
likely to be the case in low-income urban fringe areas which
yield little revenue in return for public services.



15



The difficulties experienced in operating standfasts often arise
from the way water supplies are managed, from inadequate technical
design and from a shortage of resources. There are also problems
relating to the institutional and organizational structure,
particularly where several organizations are involved in water
supply, and the boundaries defining their separate areas of
responsibility are not clear. When this happens, some tasks
may be duplicated and others entirely neglected. Public stand-
>>>