[PDF]Rural Water Supply in Developing Countries

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Rural Water Supply in Developing Countries

Published by.

International Development Research Centre
Box 8500

Ottawa, Canada K1G 3H9

Available from:

International Development Research Centre
Box 8500

Ottawa, Canada K1G 3H9

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Development Research Centre.



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ITT



Supply in Developing Countries



m



Proceed in^^a workshop on
training hel^TZomba, Malawi
5-12 Augusts 980



The International Development Research Ct-mre is a public corporation
created by the Parliament of Canada in 1 970 to support research designed to
adapt science and technology to the needs of developing countries. 'I he
Centre's activity is concentrated in five sectors; agriculture, food and
nutrition sciences; health sciences; information sciences; social sciences; and
communications. IDRC is financed solely by the Parliament of Canada; its
policies however, are set by an international Board of Governors. The
Centre's headquarters are in Ottawa, Canada. Regional offices are located in
Africa, Asia, Latin America, and the Middle East.



®I98I International Development Research Centre
Postal Address: Box 8500, Ottawa, Canada KIG 3H9
Head Office; 60 Queen Street, Ottawa



IDRC, Ottawa CA IDRC-I67e

Rural water supply in developing countries: proceedings of a workshop
on training held in Zomba, Malawi, 5 12 August 1980. Ottawa, Ont., IDRC,
1981. 144 p. : ill.

/ IDRC publication /,/ rural/ ,/ water supply / , / alternative technology / ,
/training programmes/,/ Africa/ — /self-help/, /pilot projects/, /water
storage/, /pumps/, /wells/, /technical aspects/, /costs/,/ methane/, /wind
energy/, /water treatment/, /cultural factors/,/ social participation/,
/women/, /technical personnel/, /engineers/, /training/, /curriculum/.

UDC: 628. 1(6-202) ISBN: 0-88936-292-0



Microfiche edition available



IDRC-167e



Rural Water Supply in
Developing Countries



Proceedings of a workshop on training
held in Zomba, Malawi, 5-12 August 1980



Sponsored by;

Government of Malawi

International Development Research Centre

Canadian International Development Agency



Contents



Foreword 5
Participants 7
Technology

The development of self-help gravity-piped water projects in Malawi
L.H. Robertson 9

Muianje tour 12

Rainwater catchment in Botswana
Gilbert J. Maikano and Lars Nyberg 13

Shallow wells and hand pumps
Aseged Mammo 18

Shallow wells project, Shinyanga Region
Y.N. Kashoro 26

Shallow wells program in Malawi
T.H.B. Nkana 30

Mark series well pumps
K. Jellema 32

The ndowa pump
J. Kanyenda 36

Water pumping by wind energy in Kenya
M.N. Opondo 38

An assessment of water-pumping technologies using locally available
energy resources, Botswana
R. Carothers 44

Simple water treatment methods
J. Gecaga 53

Technology: discussion 59

Operation and Maintenance

Role of operation and maintenance in training (with emphasis on hand
pumps)

Aseged Mammo 60

Operational maintenance in Malawi
L.W.C. Munthali and G.A. Kamwanja 63

Role of operation and maintenance^ training
S.K. Ichung'wa 66 "

A sociological approach to water development
J.A.K. Kandawire 69

The role of operation and maintenance in community rural water supply
training
A. Mzee 75



3



The role of the Ministry of Education in the training of future users of
rural water supply systems
J. Kuthemba Mwale 79

Health education in rural areas
Y.M.Z. Nyasulu 81

The role of women in rural water development in Kenya
W. Getechah 85

Community participation in rural water supply development
Tsehaye Haile 89

Operation and maintenance : discussion 96

Training

Manpower surveys in Ethiopia
K. Achamyeleh 98

Manpower surveys in Tanzania
R.M,A. Swere 101

Planning and organizing training in Ethiopia
Michael Musie 104

Planning and organizing training in Tanzania
R,M.A. Swere 107

The planning and organization of training for water development in K enya
R.C. Shikwe HO

Proposed^ curriculum for rural water supply personnel
J. Kuthemba Mwale 117

Training of workers for piped-water schemes in Malawi
H.R. Khoviwa 120

Views about water supply and training at the Department of Water Affairs,
Botswana

Gilbert J. Maikano and Lars Nyberg 123

Training of water technicians in Tanzania
M.M. Kivugo 126

Training program for technical officers in Malawi
G.A. Kamwanja 129

The international water technician's course, Swaziland College of
Technology

M.R.Z. Ntshangase 132

Training of civil engineers in Kenya
J. Gecaga 134

Training: discussion 138

Workshop Resolutions 140

Country Action Plans 143



4



Foreword



The 1980-1990 decade has been chosen by the United Nations as a period
when a special effort will be made to overcome the lack of adequate water supply
and sanitation facilities for large sections of the populations of the less-
developed world. The manpower resources to realize these goals are minimal
in most countries.

The regions of East and Southern Africa are areas where the scarcity of
adequately trained personnel is acute and there is a lack of information on newly
developed low-cost technologies.

In August 1 980, two workshops were held: one in Malawi on water supply and
another in Botswana on sanitation. Full delegations from Ethiopia, Tanzania,
Malawi, and Botswana attended. Selected representatives from Kenya,
Swaziland, Zambia, Lesotho, and Mozambique were also invited to participate.

The regional workshops were not intended to be an end in themselves but were
planned to be followed by small, national training workshops carried out by the
participants in their own countries. The aim of the workshops was to further
disseminate the information on low-cost technologies and discuss the
implementation of curricula changes and training needs recommended at the
regional meetings.

These proceedings include papers presented at the first meeting, summaries
of the resulting discussions, descriptions of the field visits, resolutions, and
action plans. It is hoped that, through wide dissemination, the influence of this
training workshop will spread beyond the countries of the attending delegates.

The International Development Research Centre (IDRC) is indebted, in
particular, to T.D. Thawale of the National Research Council and to L.L.B.
Munthali and P. Marcello of the newly formed Department of Lands, Valuation
and Water for ensuring success of the workshop.

Eric Schiller, an IDRC consultant, acted as workshop coordinator. Editing
was undertaken by the Communications Division, IDRC. A special word of
thanks is due the support staff of the Health Sciences Division.



5



Participants



K. Achamyeleh Head, Planning and Research, Ethiopian Water Resources
Authority, P.O. Box 1008, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

Aseged Mamtno Research and Development Engineer, Mechanical Engineer-
ing Department, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

Richard Carothers Research Associate, Department of Mechanical Engineer-
ing, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Canada

C.H. Can* Groundwater Geologist, Department of Lands, Valuation and
Water, Private Bag 311, Lilongwe 3, Malawi

A.T. Chibwana Senior Supervisor, Department of Lands, Valuation and
Water, Box 97, Mulanje, Malawi

Ron Droste Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Water
Engineering Group, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada

Joshua Gecaga Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, University of
Nairobi, P.O. Box 30197, Nairobi, Kenya

Wanjiru Getechah Staff Development Officer, Directorate of Personnel
Management, P.O. Box 30050, Nairobi, Kenya

Michael Graham Head, Technical Editing Unit, International Development
Research Centre, P.O. Box 8500, Ottawa, Canada

S.K. Ichung'wa Provincial Head, Western Province, Ministry of Water
Development, P.O. Box 235, Kakamega, Kenya

K. Jellenta Wells Engineer, Department of Lands, Valuation and Water,
Private Bag 311, Lilongwe, Malawi

G. A. Kamwanja Lecturer, Department of Engineering, The Polytechnic,

University of Malawi, Private Bag 303, Blantyre 3, Malawi
J.A.K. Kandawire Head, Department of Psychology, Philosophy, and
Sociology, Chancellor College, University of Malawi, P.O. Box 280,
Zomba, Malawi

James Kanyenda Assistant Research Officer, Christian Service Committee,

P.O. Box 949, Blantyre, Malawi
Yussuf N. Kashc ro Project Manager (Shallow Wells), Ministry of Water,

Energy and Minerals, P.O. Box 147, Shinyanga, Tanzania

H. R. Khoviwa Technical Officer, Department of Lands, Valuation and

Water, Private Bag 31 1 , Lilongwe 3, Malawi
M.M. Kivugo Principal, Water Resources Institute, P.O. Box 35059, Dar es
Salaam, Tanzania

Lesetedinyana Lesetedi Senior Health Inspector, Ministry of Health, P.O.
Box 258, Gaborone, Botswana

Michael G. Mc Garry Associate Director, Health Sciences Division, Inter-
national Development Research Centre, P.O. Box 8500, Ottawa, Canada

Gilbert John Maikano Civil Engineering Technician, Department of Water
Affairs, Private Bag 0029, Gaborone, Botswana

E.S. Malindi Assistant Chief Agricultural Development Officer, Agricultural
Development Department, Box 30134, Lilongwe 3, Malawi



7



Patrick Marcello Head, Groundwater Division, Department of Lands,

Valuation and Water, Private Bag 311, Lilongwe 3, Malawi
L.W.C. Munthali Senior Boreholes Maintenance Officer, Department of

Lands, Valuation and Water, Private Bag 311, Lilongwe 3, Malawi
Michael Musie Head, Training Service, Ethiopian Water Resources

Authority, P.O. Box 1008, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
J. Kuthemba Mwale Lecturer, Department of Education, Chancellor College,

University of Malawi, P.O. Box 280, Zomba, Malawi
A. Mzee Chief Maintenance Engineer, Ministry of Water, Energy and

Minerals, P.O. Box 9153, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
Fredy Ndhlovu Senior Works Inspector, Department of Water Affairs,

P.O. Box 329, Francistown, Botswana
T.H.B. Nkana Wells Programme Officer, Department of Lands, Valuation

and Water, P.O. Box 17, Dowa, Malawi
Mandlenkosi Robert Z. Ntshangase Head, Construction Department,

Swaziland College of Technology, P.O. Box 69, Mbabane, Swaziland
Yohane M.Z. Nyasulu Regional Health Inspector, Ministry of Health,

P.O. Box 95, Lilongwe, Malawi
Lars Nyberg Chief Training Officer, Department of Water Affairs, Private

Bag 0029, Gaborone, Botswana
M.N. Opondo Panel Leader, Wind Energy Technical Panel, Department of

Mechanical Engineering, University of Nairobi, P.O. Box 30197, Nairobi,

Kenya

Lindsay Robertson Principal Water Engineer (Rural), Ministry of Community

Development, Private Bag 8, Lilongwe, Malawi
Eric J. Schiller Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Water

Engineering Group, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada
R.C. Shikwe Deputy Secretary/ Director of Administration, Ministry of

Water Development, P.O. Box 49720, Nairobi, Kenya
O.C. Sibale Chief Water Resources Supervisor, Department of Lands,

Valuation and Water, Private Bag 311, Lilongwe 3, Malawi
A.M. Singini Water Engineer (Rural), Department of Lands, Valuation and

Water, Private Bag 8, Lilongwe, Malawi
R.M.A. Swere Director for Manpower Development, Ministry of Water,

Energy and Minerals, P.O. Box 9153, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
Tsehaye Haile Head, Public Relations Service, Ethiopian Water Resources

Authority, P.O. Box 1008, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia



8



The Development of Self-Help Gravity-Piped
Water Projects in Malawi



L.H. Robertson 1



Malawi covers 95 000 km 2 , including a
number of mountains which are the sources
of perennial rivers and streams. Of the total
population of 5 million, 420 000 live in the
rural areas of Mulanje. These people are
served by 2700 village taps, which they
themselves have installed by laying 2000 km
of piping. The total cost has been K2 million
(Kl = U.S. $1.2484), an average of K750 per
tap unit and a cost of K5 per head of
population.

The majority of people get their domestic
water supply from shallow wells or streams.
When these dry up during the dry season,
water has to be carried long distances.

With the growth of population and the
increase in cultivation, rivers and wells dry
up earlier in the year. Water supply,
therefore, becomes more and more of a
problem. As the population becomes more
dense, the health hazard from polluted
rivers becomes greater.

Technical Background

The design objective of the project is to
pipe pure mountain water, by gravity
systems, from mountain streams to villages
on the fertile plain.

The design criteria are: (I) 27 litres per
person per day; (2) one tap to approximately
160 people; and (3) a design flow of 0.075
litres/ s at each tap (when all taps are open).



'Principal Water Engineer (Rural), Ministry
of Community Development, Lilongwe, Malawi.



All taps are public standpoints; water must
be carried away (which limits consumption);
and the water is free, so it is used by
everyone.

Population figures are obtained from
census maps. The layout and details of
villages are obtained from aerial photo-
graphs. Alignment of pipelines is de-
termined from 1:50000 ordinance survey
maps and profiles are plotted for each line.

The overall design capacity, as well as
considering the existing population, takes
into account the food production capacity
of the soil, and is based on the (estimated)
maximum population which the land can
support.

From these data, required flows and pipe
sizes can be calculated and the network
designed.

The full range of pipe sizes is used: 12-90
mm PVC, and the larger sizes, 100-250 mm
asbestos cement.

Pressures used are up to 10 atmospheres
(10.3 kg/ cm 2 ). A suitable site is chosen to
ensure that the header tank is at the proper
elevation, the intake being high enough to
feed this tank. For large projects, the main
pipeline will feed a number of branch line
tanks, which will then be header tanks for
the branch line systems, as well as providing
night storage, thereby enabling the main line
to be utilized throughout the night.

Because the streams used for water
supplies come from mountain forest
reserves, the only purification methods
employed are screening and sedimentation.
Work is now being carried out to introduce



9



slow-sand filtration. This would greatly
increase the number of rivers which could
then be utilized and would extend the scope
of this program.

Management and Planning

Development of Project Management

As a result of the first two pilot projects in
1968 and 1969, four things became
apparent:

( 1 ) The villagers and their leaders, having
seen the possibilities, wanted more of these
projects. They had become convinced that
water could flow long distances through
pipes (without the use of an engine) and that
government was able to assist through the
provision of pipes and expertise. Thus, the
credibility gap between government and the
villagers was bridged.

(2) Although it was essential to start with
a small pilot project, until the people were
convinced of its merits, it would become
necessary to expand the project to cover a
larger area in a comprehensive manner. This
might involve as many as 100000 people in
one project.

(3) If projects of this size were to be
attempted there must be proper technical
supervision. Although the digging and
backfilling of all the pipelines could be done
using self-help labour, the actual laying and
jointing must be done to a high standard and
there are many aspects of the job which
require the supervision of a technical
assistant.

(4) The project leadership and organi-
zation would have to be such that it
could maintain enthusiasm over a pro-
longed period (2 years), between the start
of a project and the completion, when taps
are turned on in the villages.

Project Leadership and Committees

The key to the success of these projects is
the involvement of the whole community,
and the setting up of an organization that
can handle the large amount of work that
has to be done and ensure that everyone
does his share.



The first step is to hold a public meeting to
announce the project. At this meeting all
leaders arc present: member of parliament,
chiefs, and party leaders. The chief will ask
his people if they want the project and are
willing to work for it. In this way, the self-
help commitment is established from the
start. The meeting then appoints a project
committee to organize the work.

The project committee has the support of
the chiefs and all the leaders and people. It
is, therefore, able to control the work that
has to be done and to overcome any
problems which may arise. It is important
that these committees are not appointed by
the government, but that they derive
support from the people, chiefs, and party
leaders.

For a large project, there will be a number
of section committees within the main
committee, which will be responsible for the
different sections of the pipeline system.

Finally, there will be a village committee
in each village to oversee the construction of
the tap site and apron with soakaway pit,
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