[PDF]Environmentaly Sound Small-Scale Water Projects

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REFERENCE
LIBRARY

A project of Volunteers in Asia



Environmentally Sound Small-Scale Wate r Proji

by. Gus Tillman

Published by:

Coordination in Development/Volunteers ii

Technical Assistance
Environment and Development Program
79 Madison Avenue
New York, NY 10016 USA

Paper copies are $ 5.50.

Available from;

Volunteers in Technical Assistance
1815 North Lynn Street Suite 200
P.O. Box 12438
Arlington, VA 22209 USA

Reproduced by permission of CODEL (Coordinat:
in Development) .



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form is subject to the same restrictions as
of the original document.




ENVIRONMENTALLY

SOUND
SMALL-SCALE



WATER




PROJECTS




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GUIDELINES FOR PLANNING



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ENVIRONMENTALLY SOUND
SMALL-SCALE WATER PROJECTS

GUIDELINES FOR PLANNING

BY

GUS TILLMAN



COORDINATION IN DEVELOPMENT
VOLUNTEERS IN TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE



• 1981 CODEL

Oover design and illustrations by Susann Foster Brown



TABLE OF CONTENTS



PREFACE i

AUTHOR'S NOTE vi

1 • WATER — USERS AND USES 1

2. WATER AND ENVIRONMENT 7

3. WATER AND HEALTH 21

4. ENHANCEMENT, DEVELOPMENT AND PROTECTION 50

5. SANITATION AND WASTE TREATMENT 68

6. WATER AND AGRICULTURE 83

7 . AQUAT C PRODUCTS 1 07

8. WATER AND ENERGY 112

9. PLANNING 115
APPENDIX I. BIBLIOGRAPHY OF CITED REFERENCES 136
APPENDIX II. WHERE TO ORDER REFERENCES 141



PREFACE



This is the second volume of the Guidelines for Planning
series. The first volume , Environmentally Sound Small
" Scale Agricultural Projects , was jointly published in 1979
by VITA and The Mohonk Trust. The remainder of the series
is being produced by CODEL and published jointly by VITA
and CODEL. The booklets can be ordered from VITA.

This booklet has been written for community development
workers in developing countries who are not technicians in
the area of water resources. It is meant to serve as a
general guide when planning environmentally sound small-
scale water projects, that is, projects which protect and
conserve natural resources in a manner which allows sus-
tainable development to take place. Sources of more
detailed and specific information are listed in the text.

CODEL is grateful to members of the CODEL Environment and
Development Committee who have supported this effort and
commented on the material:

Father John Joe Braun, Missionaries of Africa,

Committee Chairperson
Ms. Elizabeth Enloe, Church World Service
Mr. George Gerardi, Attorney at Law
Mr. George Mahaf fey. The Peace Corps
Dr. Ragnar Overby, The World Bank
Ms. Agnes Pall, International Division, YMCA
Mr. C. Anthony Pryor, Center for Integrative

Development

Mr. A. Keith Smiley, Mohonk Consultations on the
Earth's Ecosystem

Pastor Charles Fluegel, a former Committee member, de-
serves special thanks for his thoughtful, practical con-
tributions. In addition, two other former members of the
Committee should be recognized for their involvement in
the projects Miss Marion Morey and Mr. Michael Hayes.



i



CODEL is pleased to publish a booklet written by Dr. Gus
Tillman whose environmental training, expertise and over-
seas experience make him a unique resource to the develop-
ment community. Dr. Tillman also serves on the CODEL
Committee.

Special appreciation is reserved for Mr. Philip W. Quigg
for his invaluable editorial and technical expertise.

Several persons reviewed the draft manuscript: Dr. John
M. Kalbermatten, Mr. James H. Patric, Dr. Daniel A. Okun,
Mr. R. Paul Chakroff, Ms. Marilyn S. Chakroff and Dr.
Patricia Rosenfield. In addition, the book was reviewed
by VITA volunteers and AID personnel, among them Ms. Molly
Kux, AID Office of Forestry, Environment and Natural
Resources.

Ms. Kux and Mr. Albert Printz, AID Environmental Coordina-
tor, have been a constant source of support for the Envi-
ronment and Development Program and especially the publi-
cation series. We are also appreciative of the continuing
support of the AID Office of Private and voluntary Cooper-
ation.

We welcome comments from readers of the book; a
questionnaire is enclosed for your convenience. Please
share your reactions with us.

Rev. Boyd Lowry, CODEL
Ms. Carol Roever, CODEL
Ms. Helen L. Vukasin, CODEL



ii -



ABOUT CODEL



Coordination in Development (CODEL) is a private, not-for-
profit consortium of 38 development agencies working in
developing countries. CODEL funds community development
activities which are locally initiated and ecumenically
implemented. These activities include health, agricultu-
ral and career training projects, among others.

The Environment and Development Program of CODEL serves
the private and voluntary development community by provid-
ing workshops, information and materials designed to docu-
ment the urgency, feasibility and potential of an approach
to small-scale development which stresses the interdepen-
dence of human and natural resources. This booklet is one
of several materials developed under the Program to assist
development workers in taking the physical environment
into account during project planning, implementation and
evaluation. For more information, contact CODEL at 79
Madison Avenue, New York, New York 10157 USA.



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ABOUT VITA



Volunteers in Technical Assistance (VITA) is a private
nonprofit international development organization. It
makes available to individuals and groups in developing
countries a variety of information and technical resources
aimed at fostering self-sufficiency — needs assessment and
program development support; by-mail and on-site consult-
ing services; information systems training. VITA promotes
the use of appropriate small-scale technologies, especial-
ly in the area of renewable energy- VITA's extensive
documentation center and worldwide roster of volunteer
technical experts enable it to respond to thousands of
technical inquiries each year. It also publishes a quar-
terly newslettter and a variety of technical manuals and
bulletins. For more information, contact VITA at 3706
Rhode Island Avenue, Mt. Rainier, Maryland 20822 USA.



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/



AUTHOR'S NOTE

Users, Uses and Mea Culpa

This manual is written for all those who are planning,
implementing, or responsible for a water project to bene-
fit small segments of the world's urban or rural poor.
Depending on the reader's level of expertise, the manual
may be criticized for over-simplification of complex
topics or for being too technical. It is meant to provide
a beginning for ecological analysis and a reference to the
necessary technical materials,, The manual is best suited
as an initial guide for planning and discussion with com-
munity leaders.

In using this manual, it is hoped that the development
worker will read the section which applies to the proposed
project and then select one or more technical references
from the bibliography. The worker may then write to the
distributors (Appendix II) to obtain a copy of the rele-
vant references.

The author acknowledges with thanks the fine editorial
work of Philip Quigg as well as assistance from Julie
Morgan and typist Phyllis Haight of the Cary Arboretum.
References listed in Appendix I were invaluable. The
author accepts all responsibility for technical sins of
commission and omission.



G.T., Nillbrook, New York
1981



vi -



1. WATER - USERS AND USES



"The greatest problem in
communication is the
illusion that it has been
achieved. "

Anonymous



Our planet contains an estimated 336 million cubic miles
of water* However, nearly 95% of this prodigious supply
is saltwater contained in the oceans and seas which cover
two-thirds of the earth's surface. Of the 5% that is
freshwater, all but 1% is frozen in polar ice caps or vast



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northern glaciers. The remaining 3.36 million cubic
miles, which is at least theoretically available for human
use, is distributed approximately as follows:



Ground water



98.55%



Lakes



1.0



Soil (between particles)
Rivers and streams
Atmospheric vapor
Biological (in plant and
animal tissue)



0.05



0.2



0.1



0.1



If freshwater supplies were uncontaminated and equally
distributed around the globe, there would be little need
for water development projects and even less need for this
development manual. However, common sense and numerous
global studies tell us that water supplies are neither
uncontaminated, nor equally distributed; therein lies the
need for water development projects. According to a re-
cent global survey of 91 countries conducted by the World
Health Organization (WHO) , 86% of the rural populations
(1.11 thousand million people) are without "reasonable
access to safe water. H By region, the numbers and per-
centages of rural people without reasonable access to safe
water are as follows:



Af r ica


136.0 million


89%


Amerioas


92. 1 million


76%


Easter i Mediterranean


139.5 million


82%


Europe


23.3 million


56%


Southeast Asia


661 .7 million


91%


Western Pacific


59.0 million


79%


All regions


1,111.6 million


86%



(after Peachem, 1977)



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In view of these staggering statistics, the World Health
Assembly set a seemingly modest target at the start of the
last decade: to give 25% of the rural populations of
developing nations reasonable access to safe water by
1980. However, just to maintain 1971 levels, world popu-
lation growth would require new water supplies for 297
million additional people since the start of the decade.
In spite of the intensive and costly efforts to increase
safe water supplies, it is likely that a larger percentage
of rural people lack access to safe water in 1980 than in
1971. To gain ground, water development efforts will have
to increase in quantity and improve in quality. Therein
lies the principal need and purpose of this manual.

It is not always possible to obtain the professional
studies and analyses that might be desired. New water -
related projects are increasingly being developed to meet
pressing local needs in agriculture and health without
benefit of professional scientific or engineering advice.
Small-scale projects are initiated, planned and often
implemented by highly motivated, experienced development
workers, who have insufficient technical skills and expe-
rience in water resource development. Given ideal condi-
tions, field workers can develop the necessary expertise
to plan and implement small-scale water projects. But
\ realistically, assignments are short-term, needs are at
crisis point, available experts are overworked on large-
scale projects and literature is so difficult to obtain it
might as well be on the moon.

i

to address this reality, this manual was prepared as a
guide or aid in planning and executing environmentally
sound small-scale water resource projects. It is not
intended to replace technical literature or professional
advice when available, but to serve as a helpful substi-
tute when those sources of information are unobtainable or
as a guide to topics on which further information may be



needed. Through a discussion of the environmental factors
which relate to water development and use, the manual
encourages the incorporation of environmental considera-
tions into water development planning to increase the
probability of long-term project sustainability .



WHO SHOULD USE THIS MANUAL?

Anyone who must plan, review, supervise or implement
small-scale water resource projects and:

• has limited experience in water resource technology
or minimal access to technical experts

• wishes to learn more about the environmental rela-
tionships that affect water resource projects

• must prepare or review a report on the environmen-
tal aspects of water development projects

• must prepare a training program on small-scale
water development projects.



WHAT DOES THE MANUAL PROVIDE?

• Basic ecological principles which relate to water
resource development

• A guide for planning small-scale water projects

• Suggestions for low-cost techniques to avoid
adverse impacts of water development

• Basic information and resources for planning and
implementing projects in water supply, water con-



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servation, water distribution systems, waste-water
treatment, agriculture, energy and public health,

ECOLOGY AND THE ENVIRONMENT

Today the terms ecology and environment often are used
interchangeably, but they are not the same. Quite simply,
ecology is the study of the relationships and interactions
of the living and non-living parts of our surroundings.
The living parts include plants, animals and one-celled
organisms (e.g., bacteria and algae), while weather, soil,
rocks, energy, topography and water are some of the non-
living elements in our surroundings. All these factors
are interrelated, mostly in ways which we do not fully
understand, although many of the major relationships have
been defined by ecologists. We have learned that it is
impossible to alter one part of our surroundings without
producing changes in some other components. Since a water
development project will alter major parts of a particular
ecologic system, we know that other parts will change.
Through sound planning and implementation, we can try to
ensure that changes will not produce severe negative
effects.

Environment is an even simpler term to define because it
can be used interchangeably with surroundings, if one
keeps in mind that surroundings are all-inclusive, involv-
ing all living and non-living parts. Within this defini-
tion, it is proper to include man and the social and
cultural activities associated with humans. It is clear
from the definitions that ecology is the study of environ-
ment; therefore these are not interchangeable terms and
will not be used in this manual as though they were.

The natural environment is a term used to describe systems
which have evolved over millions of years, approaching a



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harmonious, or perhaps, dynamic balance. In natural
systems, water cycles, soil fertility and plant-animal
relationships tend to be stable and predictable, although
often upset by natural catastrophes such as earthquakes,
floods, volcanic eruptions or lightning-induced fires.
Man, who has the ability to alter significant parts of a
system, produces artificial environments such as cities,
farms and lakes. The new environments contain many bene-
fits to be sure, but also may create many unfavorable
conditions: increased disease, contaminated water sup-
plies, deforestation, desertification and eroded soils.
Recently, through ecology, we have learned that if artifi-
cial environments can be made to function more like natu-
ral environments, they tend to be more stable and predict-
able. Therefore, it is in our best interest to understand
the functioning of a natural system so that the conditions
ensuring stability and long -lasting benefits can be pre-
served, at least in part, in man-devised projects. Scien-
tists often identify smaller units within the natural
system called ecosystems. See section on "Ecosystems 11 in
Chapter 2.



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2. WATER AND ENVIRONMENT



". • .For in the wilderness
shall waters break out and
streams in the desert. "

The Bible



The primary goal of water resource development is to
provide safe and reliable water supplies for human use.
This may involve the development of a new water source,
expansion of an existing source, improvements in collec-
tion and delivery, or methods of water conservation* In
some cases, water quantity may be adequate, but inferior
quality requires a plan for purification or improved sani-
tation. In addition to developing potable water supplies
for human consumption and hygiene, communities often want
more water for agriculture or manufacturing to increase
employment opportunities and improve the standard of
living.



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Even where water development projects are implemented with
the best intentions, unforeseen environmental factors can
produce negative effects, often outweighing the benefits
of the project. Dramatic increases in water-related
disease, loss of soil fertility, increased erosion and
changes in the hydrologic balance are some of the adverse
side effects of poorly planned water projects. Determin-
ing the possible positive and negative effects may be the
most important task faced by planners of small-scale water
projects. Through the selection of an alternate technique
or a minor modification of a proposed project, many of the
unwanted consequences can be either reduced or avoided
altogether. An understanding of basic ecological concepts
and an awareness of environmental relationships can help
planners to judge the direction and magnitude of environ-
mental changes that various alternatives might cause and
to assess the positive and negative effects of the pos-
sible options.

It is in tropical regions, where most of the developing
countries are located, that we find the greatest inequi-
ties in water distribution. The extensive arid and semi-
arid regions of the tropics are plagued not only by inade-
quate rainfall for crops, but also are subject to extreme
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