[PDF]A dictionary of education

A DICTIONARY OF
EDUCATION
EDUCATION


EDUCATION
EDITED BY P.J.HILLS


462


< A dictionary of education


Routledge Education Books


Advisory editor: John Eggleston
Professor of Education
University of Keele


A dictionary of education


Edited by P J Hills


Director, Primary Communications Research Centre
University of Leicester


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First published in 1982 N

Reprinted and first published

as a paperback in 1984

Reprinted in 1985

by Routledge & Kegan Paul ple

14 Leicester Square,

London WC2 7PH, England,.

9 Park Street, Boston, Mass., 02108, USA, ;
464 St Kilda Road, Melbourne, Victoria 3004, Australia and
Broadway House, Newtown Road,
Henley-on-Thames, Oxon RG91EN, England

Set in Linotron Times

by Input Typesetting Ltd, London and printed

in Great Britain by St Edmundsbury Press,

Bury St Edmunds, Suffolk


©P. J. Hills 1982


No part of this book may be reproduced in any
form without permission from the publisher,
except for the quotation of brief, Passages in
criticism .
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Main entry under title:

A Dictionary of education,

(Routledge education books)

Includes bibliographies.

1. Education—Dictionaries.

I. Hills, P. J. (Philip James)

II. Series
LB15. D48 370'.3'2] 81-22718
ISBN 0-7102-0388-8 AACR2


Contents


Introduction


Part 1 Areas of education


Ne


RW


13
14
15


Administration of education James Owain Jones

Business education and training Brian Lusher and
Sue Ward

Comparative education Raymond Jackson

Curriculum development John B. Reynolds and
David Halpin

Economics of education Maureen Woodhall

Educational measurement Roy Childs

Educational organisations Richard N. Tucker

Educational research Duncan Harris

Educational technology Philip Hills

History of education John S. Hurt

Industrial education and training Brian Lusher and
Sue Ward

Management education and training Brian Lusher
and Sue Ward ,

Philosophy of education Pat Smart

Psychology of education Bernard Lovell

Sociology of education Keith Fleming


Part 2 List of terms


Introduction


We are apt to think that when we have consulted a dictionary and
found out what a word means, we should then know how to use
it. However, it is mainly through the use of a word that the
meaning is shown. The challenge in compiling this dictionary was
to create an awareness of the main areas of education and to
provide conceptual accounts which show the reader how appro-
priate terms are employed within the context.

A standard dictionary contains an alphabetical list of terms with
short, neutral definitions of each one. Definitions have to be brief,
since there must be a large number of terms in order to give a
comprehensive coverage, often in one volume. On the other hand,
an encyclopedia develops these short definitions into larger
accounts and therefore often runs into several volumes.

This dictionary allows the reader to explore the subject of ed-
ucation in one volume by conceptual accounts of the main areas
of education, by interlinked entries, and, most important, by key
references to further reading. It does not set out to be totally
comprehensive in its coverage, nOr does it adopt a neutral view
of a subject. It is intended to give the reader an entry into the
subject so that by subsequent exploration he can come to his own
conclusions about the shades of meaning within the subject.

Although this dictionary is intended mainly for students, teach-
ers and administrators in a wide variety of educational settings,
we have tried to keep a much wider general readership in mind


so that:


1 The areas of education chosen provide the reader with


accounts that do not assume too much background


knowledge.


Introduction


2 Each area provides an exploration of the main terms in
current usage.

3 Further reading is provided where appropriate, so that the
reader can explore an area in more depth if he or she so
wishes.


The areas of education


Fifteen areas of education have been chosen; these both overlap
and complement each other. These areas fit into three broader
concepts: firstly, settings for the process of education; secondly,
the process itself; and thirdly, the methods and techniques that
can be applied. Before we begin let us examine these in a little
more detail.


1 Settings


The settings for the process of formal full-time education are dealt
with in four areas:


Comparative education This area is concerned with a study of


various educational systems taken largely in an historical
perspective.


Administration of education This area focuses on the structure of
the education system in England and Wales.


Educational organisations Here the concern is with the large num-
ber of organisations which play a part in the educational system.


Economics of education The econo
with the inter-relationshi
tional system.


mics of education is concerned
ps between the economy and the educa-


Education in the business/industrial sector is dealt with in the
following three areas:
Industrial education and training
activities connected with the maki
goods and services.


This deals with educational
ng, supply and distribution of


Business education and training Fifteen per cent of the working


2


Introduction


population is wholly or partly involved in administration, clerical,
secretarial or data-processing information duties. This area deals
with educational activities in this field and in the professions.


Management education and training This area is concerned with
educational activities designed to help a manager improve his
performance in his current job.


2 Process


The process of education is dealt with in four areas which consti-
tute the four main traditional educational topics: namely, the
history of education, the philosophy of education, the psychology
of education and the sociology of education.


3 Methods and techniques


Here there are four areas:


Curriculum development This is concerned with the planning, im-
plementation and evaluation of educational programmes, of
courses of study, offered by educational institutions.


Educational technology This area is concerned with the applica-
tion of a systematic approach to education involving the establish-
ment of objectives and the determination of suitable methods and


techniques for teaching and learning.

Educational research Educational research is concerned with the
evaluation of education in terms of new curricula, systems and
styles of education, etc.

Educational measurement Educational measurement is part of ed-
ucational research in the same way that algebra is part of math-


ematics; here, although we relate it to the broader area, it is
mainly problem-oriented and concerned with the principles of


measurement.


Introduction
The arrangement of the dictionary


The dictionary consists of two main sections, Part 1 containing
short accounts of the main areas of education as defined above,
and Part 2 consisting of the main body of entries.


Part 1 Areas of education


This consists of short accounts of each of the fifteen areas of
education defined above. Within each one the main terms of the
area have been italicised to indicate that an entry for the term will
be found in Part 2. At the end of most of these accounts references
to further reading have been given. There is also a list of terms


at the end of each account, giving details of the entries to be
found in Part 2.


Part 2 The entries


This section contains both entries for terms referred to in the
accounts in Part 1 and subsidiary entries which are cross-refer-
enced to other entries. This cross-referencing has been achieved
either by italicising the terms in an entry which refer to another


term, or by including a term at the end under a ‘see also’ heading.


Where appropriate, reference to further reading has been given.
At the end of each entr


c y the area or areas which generated the
terms have been identified in brackets.


How to use the dictionary


There are three main ways in which it can be used.
1 It can be used as one would any other dicti i
J i er d u
terms either in Part 1, or, mainh in Pa T piani
2 It can be used to explore ea :
by reading the account in Part 1 i
and then by following the
main terms through by means of Part 2 and seth viih
the subsidiary entries.
3 By turning to the end of eac
terms in each area can be seen a i i
in the area can be looked up ee


Introduction
The compilation of the dictionary


In order to achieve the objectives stated above, a group of special-
ists in the various fields of education were brought together, each
taking one of the areas in Part 1. Details of the specialists are as
follows:
Administration of education
James Owain Jones, Assistant Director of Education, Clwyd
County Council, Mold.
Business education and training
Brian Lusher, Training Manager, Carreras Rothmans Ltd, Ay-
lesbury. Sue Ward, Head of Information Services, British
Association for Commercial and Industrial Education,
London.
Comparative education
Dr Raymond Jackson, Senior Lecturer in Education, St Mary’s
College, Twickenham.
Curriculum development
John B. Reynolds, Lecturer in Educational Studies, Depart-
ment of Educational Research, University of Lancaster.
David Halpin, Research Officer, Northwestern Centre for Ed-
ucational Management, Padgate.
Economics of education
Maureen Woodhall, Research Associate, University of London
Institute of Education.
Educational measurement
Roy Childs, National Foundation for Educational Research,
Windsor.
Educational organisations ; i
Richard N. Tucker, Senior Assistant Director, Scottish Council
for Educational Technology, Glasgow.
Educational research i
Dr Duncan Harris, Director, Science and Technology Educa-
tion Centre, University of Bath.
Educational technology ¢ y
Dr Philip Hills, Director, Primary Communications -Research
Centre, University of Leicester.
History of education r
Dr John S. Hurt, Department of History and Philosophy of
Education, Faculty of Education, University of Birmingham.


5


Introduction


Industrial education and training

Brian Lusher, Training Manager, Carreras Rothmans Ltd, Ay-
lesbury. Sue Ward, Head of Information Services, British
Association for Commercial and Industrial Education,
London.


Management education and training

Brian Lusher, Training Manager, Carreras Rothmans Ltd, Ay-
lesbury. Sue Ward, Head of Information Services, British
Association for Commercial and Industrial Education,
London.


Philosophy of education
Dr Pat Smart, Department of Philosophy, University of Surrey,
Guildford.


Psychology of education
Bernard Lovell, Department of Psychology, Garnet College,
London.


Sociology of education
Dr Keith Fleming, Senior Lecturer in Sociology, Middlesex
Polytechnic, London.


My thanks are due to all these for their help and patience through-
out the whole exercise.

My especial thanks are due to Frances Mercer for her help in
the final editing and the vast task of compiling the entries. She
was ably assisted in her task by Sue Telfer, Hilija Saxby and John
Lord. My thanks to them all.

Thanks are also due to the many people who commented on
the _ Original entries and who suggested modifications and
additions. The final responsibility for balance and coverage must
of course rest with me.

P. J. Hills
Leicester


Part one


Areas of education


Chapter 1


Administration of education


The structure of the education system in England and Wales is
set out in the Education Act 1944, as amended. Administratively
it is a partnership between central government, local government
and teachers, with powers and duties pertaining to each.

The Act charged the Secretary of State with the duty to promote
‘The education of the people of England and Wales . . . and to
secure the effective execution by Local Authorities, under his
control and direction, of national policy’. This gave the Secretary
of State a strategic role in education planning which had not
existed before.

The authority of central government is exercised both directly
and indirectly. The Secretary of State, who is the political head
of the Department of Education and Science (DES), can use leg-
islation and regulations to lay down objectives, impose standards,
and to confer powers. He has the power, albeit used sparingly, to
give directions to a Local Education Authority (LEA) he believes
is acting unreasonably. Moreover, certain decisions of the LEA
are subject to his consent. The Secretary of State’s regulations
have the force of law and they can deal with such variety of
subjects as the qualifications of teachers, awards to students, and
standards of school premises. f

The increasing share of public expenditure taken by education
has meant the close involvement of central government, which
exercises control by means of the rate support grant and the
system of loan sanction for capital expenditure (see education
finance). For example, there was a period when no loan sanction
was fortheoming for a secondary school building project which
did not conform with a plan for reorganisation on comprehensive


lines.
The influence of the DES is exercised in a variety of ways, It


9


Administration of education


directs thinking into various aspects of the education service by
commissioning research and publications of various kinds. These
range from the very detailed reports of the Central Advisory
Councils or Committees of Enquiry to Green Papers (which are
discussion papers intended to test public reactions) and to White
Papers, which are official statements of policy. Moreover the
Department publishes surveys and bulletins of various kinds where
the influence of Her Majesty’s Inspectors is discernible. They,
through their contact with LEAs and schools and colleges and
their involvement with the Schools Council bring their influence
to bear on the policy of the Department.

The circulars issued by the DES do not have the force of law.
They deal with a variety of matters ranging from, for example,
the education of mentally handicapped children in hospital, in-
service courses for teachers, provision of dual-user sports facilities,
to the introduction of comprehensive education. These circulars
have a persuasive effect on Authorities. They have been used to
influence LEAs in cases of policy where no Statutory powers exist.
Circular 10/65 on comprehensive education (1965) was the trigger
for the widespread change towards comprehensive education of
the following decade. Some Authorities ignored it, and this led to
legislation in 1976, since repealed, to compel the introduction of
comprehensive education.

The Act also created the cate
were part financed fro:
Secretary of State re


gory of direct grant schools, which
m central government; and it also gave the
gulatory powers over independent schools.

_ if central government defines national objectives, the task of
implementing them falls on the 104 Authorities in England and


Wales, which consist of the Inner London Education Authority
and the councils of 47


counties, 36 metropolitan districts and 20
outer London boroughs. It is į


allowance for schools may vary accord) ity’
7 ; Ing to A ty’s
financial resources and its determi E BASE Authority


10


Administration of education


The ages of compulsory school attendance are laid down by law,
but within this age range an LEA can determine its own pattern
of school provision, subject to the Secretary of State’s direction
on nursery schools. For example, the Leicestershire plan of sec-
ondary education developed in the 1950s was unique to that
county. The traditional and still predominant system involves a
change from primary to secondary schools at the age of 11. But
there has developed in recent years the intermediate stage of the
middle school, which pupils attend from the age of 8 or 9 until 13
or 14. Another development has been the sixth form college and
tertiary college for 16-18-year-olds. Until the trend for compre-
hensive secondary schools gathered momentum after the publica-
tion of circular 10/65 in 1965, most LEAs provided secondary
education in grammar schools and secondary modern schools on
the basis of selection at the age of 11. Although selection at this
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