[PDF]History of India 1000 A D to 1707 A D

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HISTORY OF INDIA
[1000 A-D.-1707 A.D.]


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HISTORY OF INDIA


(1000 A.D.-1707 A.D.)


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By
ASHIRBADILAL SRIVASTAVA


M.A., PH.D., D.LITT. (LUCK.), D.LITT. (AGRA)
Prof. Emeritus of History
Agra College, Agra


THIRD REVISED EDITION


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SHIVA LAL AGARWALA 8 COMPANY


EDUCATIONAL PUBLISHERS AGRA-3


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© AUTHOR, 1971


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THIRD EDITION : 1971


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PREFACE


This book has been written to meet the require-
ments of the students preparing for the B.A. exami-
nation of those of our Universities where Medieval
Indian History from 1000 A.D. to 1707 A.D. has
been prescribed for the first degree examination. It
is not a new work, and consists of relevant chapters
of the author’s well-known books, The Sultanate of
Delhi and The Mughul Empire. The object is to
provide in a handy volume the history of Medieval
India from 1000 A.D. to 1707 A.D., which our
students can easily buy and read. All aspects of
the subject have been dealt with in plain and
simple language, and it will no longer be necessary
for young aspirants to search for matter for this
paper in more than one book, It is hoped that it
will prove useful to young graduates in our univer-
sities and also to the general reader.


—A. L, SRIVASTAVA


THIRD EDITION


In this edition the book has been thoroughly
revised and all the corrections and improvements made
in the 7th edition of The Sultanate of Delhi and The
Mughul Empire have been incorporated.

Agra —A. L. SRIVASTAVA
26 January 1971


CONTENTS


CHAPTER


= 2


Pe ernawavn-


India on the Eve of Mahmud of Ghazni’s Invasion
Mahmud of Ghazni

India on the Eve of Muhammad of Ghur’s Invasion
Muhammad of Ghur

Qutb-ud-din Aibak and his Successors

Iltutmish and his Successors

Balban and his Successors

Administration of the So-called Slave Kings
Khalji Imperialism

The Tughlug Dynasty

The Sayyid Dynasty

The Lodi Dynasty

The Provincial Kingdoms

Administration of the Sultanate


The North-Western Frontier Policy : Mongol Invasions


Society and Culture

The Sultanate in Retrospect
Babur (1483-1530)
Humayun (1530-1556)

Sher Shah Sur

Akbar the Great (1542-1605)
Jahangir (1569-1627)

Shah Jahan (1628-1658)
Aurangzeb (1658-1707)

Rise of the Maratha Power


India on the Eve of Mahmud of
Ghazni’s Invasion


Political condition


There was one notable difference in the political condition of
our country at the time of the Arab invasion of Sindh and that on
the eve of the Ghaznavide penetration into Hindustan. At the
opening of the eighth century there was no foreign colony, much less
a foreign power, in the land except a handful of Arab merchants on
our western coast whose primary avocation was trade. On the
other hand, in the tenth century there were two foreign kingdoms on
our soil, namely, Multan and Mansura or Sindh. Besides, a
considerable portion of the population in these two kingdoms had
been converted to Islam. There were also Arab colonies in south-
ern India, particularly in Malabar, where the Hindu rulers had
foolishly permitted the foreigners to proselytize the native popula-
tion. As was natural for these new converts to a religion, they
preferred the foreign ways of life and had sympathy with their
fellow Muslims from Ghazni, and Central Asia. Subuktigin and
Mahmud of Ghazni, as also Muhammad of Ghur, about 150 years
later, were lucky to enjoy some kind of moral support from a section
of the Indian people.


The Arab kingdoms of Multan and Sindh


The history of the Arab kingdoms need not be related. Suffice
it to say that they comprised the whole of modern Multan and
Sindb- and threw off the Caliph’s yoke in 871 A.D. and, since that
date, enjoyed complete independence. In view, however, of their
peculiar position in a foreign country they nominally professed
allegiance to the Caliph for diplomatic reasons. There were dynastic
changes in this kingdom from time to time, At the beginning of
our period, Multan was ruled by the Karmathians and its ruler


2 HISTORY OF INDIA


was Fateh Daud. He seems to have been a man of some ability.
Sindh proper was still ruled over by the Arabs. The neighbouring
Hindu kingdoms, despite their political and religious experience at
the hands of the Arabs, had left them unmolested. Everywhere the
Arabs and, curiously enough, the new Hindu converts to Islam,
were shown consideration and allowed to follow their religion and to
make new converts. They constituted a power to be reckoned with.

There was indigenous rule in the rest of the country. Notable
among the kingdoms may be enumerated,


The Hindushahi kingdom


The first important Hindu kingdom extended from the river
Chenab to the Hindukush mountains and included Kabul. Its
royal house, Hindu Shahiya, had resisted, single-handed, the Arab
encroachment successfully for 200 years. Tt was, however, compelled
to abandon a part of Afghanistan, including Kabul, and to shift its
capital to Udbhandapur or Waihand, modern village of Und, on the
right bank of the Sindhu, 15 miles above Attock. The king about
the end of the tenth century was the famous Jaipala (probably a
descendant of Kallar) who was a brave soldier and an able ruler.
The situation of his kingdom obliged him to bear the first Turkish
onslaughts from Ghazni.


Kashmir


The next notable kingdom was that of Kashmir. Its ruling
family, the house of Utpala, came into conflict with the Hindushahi
kingdom and the empire of Kanauj. The famous Kashmiri King
Shankaravarman (885-902 A.D.), extended the boundaries of
Kashmir in several directions. He died fighting with the people of
Urasa, the modern Hazara district. His death was followed by a
great confusion, The Brahmans of the Valley, therefore, raised a
member of their own fraternity, named Yashaskara (939) to the
throne. His line came to an end within a brief period and was
followed by that of Parvagupta (948-49). Parvagupta’s son and
successor was Kshemagupta. During his time his queen, Dida, was
the virtual ruler. This powerful lady ultimately seized the throne
and crowned herself queen. She ruled over Kashmir till 1003 A.D.
when the throne passed to Sangrama Raja, who became the founder
of the Lohara dynasty. Thus, when Mahmud of Ghazni was
hammering at the gates of India, the reins of Kashmir were in the


hands of a dissolate woman and the condition of the kingdom was
far from satisfactory,


EVE OF GHAZNAVI INVASION 3


Kanauj


The imperial city of Kanauj had passed into the hands of a
new dynasty, known as the Pratihara dynasty, in or about 836 A.D.
The Pratiharas traced their descent from Lakshmana, the brother
of Shri Rama Chandra, the hero of the Ramayana. But scholars
believe that they descended from the Gurjara race. It is said that a
certain Gurjara chief served the Rashtrakuta ruler as a pratihara
(door-keeper) at a sacrifice at Ujjain about the middle of the eighth
century A.D. Probably the term pratihara was for the first time used
in the above connection. A notable ruler of the Pratihara dynasty
was Vatsaraja who won the title of Samrat or emperor. He was
succeeded by Nagabhatta II who, too, was a notable fighter. He
defeated Dharmapala, the king of Bengal; but he suffered defeat at
the hands of the Rashtrakutas. The Pratiharas continued to exer-
cise sway over Kanauj and Madhyadesha and to fight, sometimes
successfully and at others unsuccessfully, with their neighbours in
the north and the south. The Pratihara king, Mahipala (d. 931 A.D.)
was badly defeated by Indra III, the Rashtrakuta king of the Dakhin.
He lost his capital, Kanauj. He was, however. restored to his throne
by his vassal, the Chandela king Harshadeva. The Pratihara power
was, nevertheless, weakened and the rulers of the dynasty maintained
a precarious hold over the upper Ganga valley and parts of Rajasthan
and Malwa. Their former feudatories, the Chandelas of Bundel-
khand, the Chalukyas of Gujarat and the Paramaras of Malwa, be-
came independent. The last king of this dynasty was Rajyapala. He
was a feeble monarch and his capital, Kanauj, was invaded by
Mahmud of Ghazni in 1018 A.D. The Pratiharas, in their early
days, had successfully fought the Arabs and defended the country
against them ; but they had grown effete and, in the early years of
the eleventh century A.D., they succumbed to the might of the Turks
from Ghazni.


The Palas of Bengal


The Pala dynasty of Bengal, founded by Gopal in the second
half of the 8th century A.D., produced a few powerful rulers. The most
successful among them was Dharmapala, who established the famous
Vikramasila University. But the kingdom began to decline in the
second half of the 9th century. One of its later notable rulers was
Devapala. He died after thirty-nine years of reign, sometime between
833 and 878 A.D. His successors were weak and the kingdom of
Bengal rapidly declined under them. The degenerate later Pala kings


4 HISTORY OF INDIA


came into conflict with the Pratiharas of Kanauj and brought suffer-
ings on Bengal. Mahipala J, who ruled Bengal in the first quarter
of the eleventh century, was a contemporary of Mahmud of Ghazni.
He succeeded in restoring, at least partially, the fortunes of his family;
but a part of Bengal had already fallen into the hands of the power-
ful vassals who only vaguely recognized the overlordship of the Pala
kings. While Mahmud of Ghazni was laying waste north-western
India with fire and sword, Bengal was threatened by the power of the
Tamil ruler, Rajendra Chola. In this warfare Bengal had the worst
of it. It, however, remained immune from the Ghaznavide invasion
owing to its distance,


The Chandelas of Bundelkhand


The Chandelas rose into prominence in the 9th century A.D.,
and established their kingdom in Bundelkhand (Jejakbhukti) with its
capital at Khajuraho. Yashovarman, son of Harshadeva who had
helped his Gurjara Pratihara suzerain Mahipal in regaining Kanauj,
took advantage of the weakness of the Pratihara empire and repudia-
ted his allegiance. He conquered some parts of northern India and
made Chandela power formidable. He made Kalinjar a powerful
stronghold of his kingdom. His son Dhanga extended the Chandela
kingdom to the Yamuna in the north, Gwalior in the north-west,
Bhilsa (Vidisha) in the south-west and Varanasi in the east. He
defeated the Pala king of Bengal and came into clash with the rulers
of Andhra and Kuntala. Mahmud of Ghazni was overrunning the
Punjab during his reign. Dhanga died in or about 1002 A.D., aged
about 100 years.


The Paramaras of Malwa


The founder of the Paramara dynasiy of Malwa with its capital
at Dhar was Upendra alias Krishnaraja who was originally a governor
of Malwa appointed by Rashtrakuta emperor, Govind III. After the
death of Rashtrakuta Krishna III about 972 A.D., Siyaka, a descen-
dant of Upendra, founded the independent Paramara kingdom of
Malwa which was bounded by the Tapti on the south, Jhalawar on
the north, Vidisha on the east and the Sabarmati on the west. Siyaka’s
successor Munja (973-995) was the most powerful ruler of the dynasty.
Munja died in 995 A.D. and was succeeded by his brother Sindhuraja,
who too, like Munja, was a great warrior and a patron of poets and
scholars. He died in 1000 A.D. and was succeeded by his son Bhoj.
Bhoj was a contemporary of Mahmud of Gazni,


EVE OF GHAZNAV1 INVASION $


The Kalchuris of Chedi

The Kalchuris of Chedi were a great power at the end of the
10th century A.D. and their capital was Tripuri, six miles to the west
of Jabalpur in Madhya Pradesh. The royal dynasty was founded by
Kakalla, a great military leader, about 850 A.D. He made extensive
conquests in all directions, defeated the Pratihara emperor Bhoj |
and rolled back the tide of Arab expansion towards south-east. He
invaded even Bengal. A descendant of his named Lakshmanaraja in
the third quarter of the 10th century was also a great conqueror, The
latter’s two sons, who followed him one after another, were weak
rulers. Kakalla II restored the power and prestige of the dynasty
and the Kalchuris again became a great power on the eve of Mahmud
Ghazni’s invasions of Northern India.


The Chauhans of Sambhar and Ajmer

The Chauhan rulers of Shakambhari or Sambhar had originally
acknowledged the supremacy of the Pratiharas, and Guvaka I or
Govindaraja of that dynasty had joined his suzerain Nagabhatta Il in
repulsing Bashar, the governor of Sindh, under Caliph Al-Mamun
(817-833 A.D.) Sinharaja, Govindaraja’s descendant, declared his in-
dependence. His son Vigraharaja II overran the Chalukya kingdom
and carried his victorious arms as far as the Narmada. He left a
powerful kingdom with Shakambhari as his capital. It was an impor-
tant state at the end of the 10th century A.D.


The Guhils of Chittor


Like several other ruling dynasties of Northern India in 9th-10th
centuries A.D., the Guhils of Chittor too had begun their career as
feudatories of the imperial Pratiharas. The founder of the dynasty
was Guhil and he came from Vadnagar in the Baroda state in
Gujarat. He established his sway in the south-west of Mewar. An
important ruler of this ruling family was Bappa who flourished in the
8th century A.D. and had his capital at Nagda. Another powerful
ruler of the dynasty was Allata who married a Huna princess, fought
with the Paramaras of Malwa and transferred his capital to Ahar.
Shaktikumara was Mewar’s ruler when it was invaded and the
capital city of Chittor captured by Munja Paramara of Malwa.
Mewar was not a first-rate power at the end of the 10th century A.D.


The Chalukyas of Gujarat


Besides the above there were several other small ruling houses


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© _ HISTORY OF INDIA


in northern India, notable among them being the Chalukyas of
Gujarat. They too had once been the feudatories to Kanauj, but had
declared their independence during the weak rule of the latter
Pratiharas of the Imperial city. Mularaja I, the founder of the inde-
pendent Chalukya kingdom, died in 995 A.D. His son Chamunda-
raja, a contemporary of Mahmud, ruled upto 1008 A.D.


The Dakhin kingdoms


The progress of the people in southern India was marred by
constant warfare among the ruling families. The early Chalukyas in
the Dakhin had fallen in the struggle for supremacy in 753 A.D., at
the hands of the Rashtrakutas. The latter, who were at constant
warfare with their neighbours, had given place to the later
Chalukyas in 973 A.D. Similarly, the great Pallava dynasty had
fallen towards the end of the ninth century. The principal
kingdoms in the south during our period were the later Chalukya
kingdom of Kalyani and the Chola kingdom of Tanjore. The
founder of the later Chalukya dynasty was Taila 1] who claimed
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